UC-NRLF 


7? 


GIFT  OF 


:E  PROFESSION  OF  THE  MECHANICAL  OR  DYNAMICAL  ENGINEER. 


INAUGURAL  ADDRESS 


BEFORE  THE 


tufficht 


YALE  COLLEGE, 


Delivered  October  5,  1870. 


BY 


WILLIAM    P.    TROWBRIDGE, 


PROFESSOR  OF  DYNAMICAL  ENGINEERING. 


REPRINTED  BY  PERMISSION  OF  THE  AUTHOR 

FOR 

GRATUITOUS  DISTRIBUTION  TO  THE  CORRESPONDENTS  OF  THE  PUBLISHER. 


P II I  L  A  I)  E  L  P  II I  A  : 

HENRY     CAREY     B  A  I  R  D , 

INDUSTRIAL    PUBLISHER, 

40(J  WALNUT  STREET. 

1871. 


POLITICO-ECONOMIC   LITERATURE 

IN  HARMONY  WITH  THE 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  DYNAMICAL  ENGINEERING 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


BAIRD.— PROTECTION    OF   HOME    LABOR    AND 

HOME  PRODUCTIONS  NECESSARY  TO  THE  PROSPERITY  OP 
THE  AMERICAN  FARMER.  By  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD.  Paper.  lOc. 

BAIRD.— SOME  OF  THE  FALLACIES  OF  BRITISH- 

FREE-TRADE-REVENUE-REFORM.  Two  Letters  to  Prof.  A.  L. 
Perry,  of  Williams  College,  Mass.  By  HENRY  CAREY  BAIKD.  (1871.) 
Paper. 05c. 

BAIRD.  — THE     RIGHTS    OF     AMERICAN     PRO- 

PUCERS,  AND  THE  WRONGS  OF  BRITISH  FREE  TRADE 
REVENUE  REFORM.  By  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD.  (1870.)  Paper.  05c. 

BURN.— THE  PRESENT  AND  LONG-CONTINUED 

STAGNATION  OF  TRADE  :  Its  Causes,  Effects,  and  Cure.  Being  a 
Sequel  to  an  Inquiry  into  the  Commercial  Position  of  Great  Britain,  etc. 
By  a  Manchester  Man  (R.  BURN).  Revised  and  enlarged  edition.  lOc. 

BYLES.— SOPHISMS  OF  FREE  TRADE  AND  POPU- 
LAR POLITICAL  ECONOMY  EXAMINED.  By  the  Right  Hon. 
Sir  J.  BARNARD  BYLES,  Judge  of  Common  Pleas.  England.  9th  edition. 
(1870.)  12mo .  .  .  .  .  $1  00. 

CAREY.— WEALTH,  OF  WHAT  DOES  IT  CONSIST! 

By  HENRY  C.  CAREY.     (1870.)     8vo.  paper.  ....        25c. 

ROBERTS— FREE  TRADE  A  GIGANTIC  MISTAKE. 

By  JAS.  ROBERTS,  Chairman  of  the  "  Reviver's"  Association,  London. 
Paper 50c. 

SULLIVAN.— PROTECTION   TO   NATIVE   INDUS- 

TRY.     By  SIR  EDWARD  SULLIVAN,  Baronet.     8vo.  cloth.     .         .     $150. 
The  contents  of  this  famous  English  book,  which  so  clearly  points  out  the  dis- 
astrous effects  of  British-free-trade  revenue-reform  at  home,  are  as  follows  : — 

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I.    Growth  of  Trade.     II.    Trade    Statistics.      XL     Reciprocity. 
Free  Trade  and  Free  Ports.    III.  Corn.    XII.  Causes  and  Remedies.    APPEN- 


IV.  Special  Interests.  V.  Producer 
and  Consumer.  VI.  Unfair  Compe- 
tition. VII.  Labor.  V11I.  Cotton. 


DIX. — THE  WORSTED  TRADE  AND  THE 
FRENCH  TREATY.  INTOXICATING  LIQUOR 
THE  NATIONAL  CURSE. 


IX.    French   Treaty.      X;    Board 

WHARTON.  —  INTERNATIONAL       INDUSTRIAL 

COMPETITION*:  A* .IVper'  Reaft: before  the,  American  Social  Science 
Association,  at  their  General  Meeting  In  Pnifadelphia,  October  27,  1870. 
JtJy  JOSEPH  WHARTON.  Paper.  25c. 

The  .above,  or  any  of  my  Books,  sent  free  by  mail,  of  postage,  at  the  publi- 
cation prices.  My  new  and  enlarged  CATALOGUE  OF  PRACTICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC 
BOOKS, &2  pages,  8vo.,  now  ready,  complete  to  Jan.  20, 1871,  will  be  sent  free  of 
postage,  .to  any  one  who  will  favor  me  with  his  address. 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD, 

Industrial  Publisher,  406  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 


THE  PROFESSION  OF  THE  MECHANICAL  OR  DYNAMICAL  ENGINEER. 


INAUGURAL  ADDRESS 


BEFORE  THE 


OF 


YALE  COLLEGE, 


Delivered  October  5,  1870. 


BY 


WILLIAM    P.    TEOWBEIDGE. 

«/ 

PROFESSOR  OF  DYNAMICAL  ENGINEERING. 


REPRINTED  BY  PERMISSION  OF  THE  AUTHOR 

FOR 

GRATUITOUS  DISTRIBUTION  TO  THE  CORRESPONDENTS  OF  THE  PUBLISHER. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
HENEY    CAEEY    £;AJ 
INDUSTRIAL-  PUBLISHER, 


406  WALNUT  STREET. 


1871. 


t^\ 

/<< 

NOTE  BY  THE  PUBLISHER. 


MANY  years  devoted  to  an  investigation  of  the  problems  of  Social  Science — that 
body  of  knowledge  which  concerns  itself  about  the  laws  which  govern  man  in  his 
efforts  to  improve  his  condition — added  to  an  experience,  by  no  means  limited,  in  the 
publication  of  books  of  an  industrial  or  technical  character,  naturally  combined  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  undersigned  to  Professor  Trowbridge's  Inaugural  Address 
on  Dynamical  Engineering,  herewith  republished.  A  perusal  of  it  convinced  him  that 
it  was  one  of  the  clearest,  most  original,  and  most  important  papers  on  education 
which  had  ever  appeared  in  this  country.  He  therefore  believed  that  it  was  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  it  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  every  educator,  engineer, 
and  mechanic,  and,  indeed,  of  every  intelligent  head  of  a  family  in  the  land.  Such 
being  his  conviction,  he  felt  it  his  duty  to  take  measures  to  give  it  a  more  widely 
extended  circulation  than  it  had  had,  and  especially  among  that  large  and  progres- 
sive body — the  scientific  and  practical  men — so  many  of  whom  he  takes  pride  and 
pleasure  in  numbering  among  his  correspondents,  customers,  and  friends.  To  this 
end  he  sought  and  obtained  permission  of  the  author  for  the  publication  of  the  pre- 
sent edition,  which  is  now  offered  to  the  public. 

It  is  hoped  that  every  one — certainly  every  engineer — into  whose  hands  a  copy  of  it 
falls  will  read  it  for  himself,  and  form  his  own  conclusions  in  regard  to  it ;  but  the 
undersigned  cannot  resist  the  temptation  to  call  particular  attention  to  the  extreme 
beauty  and  felicity  of  the  respective  definitions  of  Civil  and  Mechanical  or  Dynamical 
Engineering,  and  the  consequent  systematic  separation  of  the  subjects.  These  defini- 
tions once  adopted,  any  particular  subdivision  of  either  of  these  branches  will  be  caused 
to  fall  naturally  to  the  understanding,  and  almost  without  any  effort  of  the  mind, 
under  its  appropriate  head,  and  into  its  proper  classification.  Of  the  author's  state- 
ment of  the  respective  relations  of  theory  and  practice  to  each  other,  and  to  THE  MAX, 
in  making  a  real  engineer,  it  cannot  but  be  conceded  that  it  sheds  a  flood  of  light 
upon  this  great  educational,  industrial,  and  social  question. 

The  late  Peter  Barlow,  the  eminent  engineer,  after  a  full  and  systematic  examina- 
tion into  the  various  facts  regarding  the  power  of  man  to  labor,  his  capacity  in -duvet- 
ing  the  forces  of  nature,  and  their  power  and  applicability  to  his  uses  and  wants, 
placed  on  record,  as  the  result  of  his  investigations  and  convictions,  these  memorable 
words: — 

"  It  seems,  indeed,"  he  says,  "  a  reasonable  inference,  from  all  that  has  now  been 
stated,  that  man  was  designed  by  his  maker  for  a  higher  principle  of  action — for  the 
exercise  of  skill,  and  for  invention  ;  to  regulate  the  action  of  the  lower  animals  to 
the  purpose  of  labor;  to  convert  air,  fire,  and  water  to  his  service,  and  only  where 
skill  and  direction  are  required,  to  become  himself  a  mechanical  agent." 

Let  the  nations  take  note!  Let  political  economists,  educators,  statesmen,  politi- 
cians, journalists,  and  all  men  who  would  mould  public  opinion,  or  govern  the  State, 
understand  that  the  true  road  to  civilization  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  adoption  of 
these  ideas,  and  putting  them  in  practice.  Let  public  policy  and  education  alike 
combine  for  the  realization  of  such  a  result,  and  THE  PEOPLE  will  reach  a  point  in 
prosperity,  comfort,  and  happiness,  and  THE  NATION  such  power  as  the  world  has  never 
hitherto  seen,  and  will  envy  a.nd  emulate.  Then  shall  we  present  an  example  of  men, 
women,  and  children  in  the:traest  and  b-est  sense  of  the  word  FREE,  because  no  longer 
under  the  dominion  or  yo\e?ty,  and  the  ignorance  and  misery  which  are  its  accompani- 
ments. .,<•' 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD. 

Philadelphia,  January  16,  1871.     • 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE. 

In  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  at  New  Haven  the  importance  of  Mechanical  Engi- 
neering as  a  branch  of  learning  has  for  many  years  been  recognized  ;  but  recently  the 
income  of  the  School  has  been  sufficiently  enlarged  for  the  maintainance  of  an  addi- 
tional professorship  to  be  solely  devoted  to  this  department  of  science.  To  such  a  chair 
Professor  WILLIAM  P.  TROWBRIDGE  was  invited — a  graduate  of  West  Point,  formerly 
of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  and  recently  of  the  Novelty  Iron  Works  in  New  York.  He 
accepted  the  position,  and  on  assuming  its  duties  delivered  the  following  inaugural  ad- 
dress in  the  presence  of  the  benefactors,  officers,  and  students  of  the  Scientific  School. 

To  those  who  are  interested  in  knowing  the  particulars  of  a  scheme  of  study  laid 
down  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  this  address,  a  special  circular  will  be  sent  on 
application. 

The  Governing  Board  of  the  Scientific  School  in  publishing  this  address  would  make 
grateful  mention  of  another  valuable  gift  received  in  connection  with  the  accession  of 
Professor  TROAVBRIDGE.  The  authorities  of  the  Novelty  Iron  Works  have  presented  to  the 
School  a  collection  of  drawings,  numbering  several  thousands,  which  have  been  accumu- 
lated in  that  establishment  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  which  exhibit,  en- 
tire and  in  detail,  the  multiform  mechanical  structures  there  manufactured. 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONNECTICUT,  Nov.  1,  1870. 


ADDRESS. 

THE  discussions  which  have  arisen  during  the  last  few3^ears  in  relation 
to  the  necessity  of  more  thorough  and  systematic  education  in  the  ap- 
plied sciences,  have  had  their  real  origin,  more,  perhaps,  than  from  any 
other  cause,  in  the  rapid  development  and  progress  of  the  arts  and  in- 
dustries due  to  the  applications  and  uses  of  machinery. 

To  this  cause  may  be  attributed  not  only  the  intense  commercial 
and  internal  business  activity  which  now  prevails,  but  also  the  absolute 
existence  and  growth  of  many  of  the  sciences  which  excite  public  atten- 
tion :  and  the  subject  of  Mechanical  Engineering  has  thus  become  one 
of  such  varied  and  extended  usefulness,  embracing  also,  in  itself,  the 
applications  of  such  a  wide  range  of  the  Mathematical,  Chemical,  and 
Physical  Sciences,  that  it  is  natural  that  popular  interest  should  have 
become  excited  in  the  introduction  of  this  study  in  our  institutions  of 
learning. 

Coming  from  active  business  life,  where  the  necessities  and  demands 
for  the  services  of  young  men  of  higher  standards  of  qualification  are 
most  seriously  felt,  I  feel  that  I  may  express  the  acknowledgments 
which  I  know  to  be  entertained  by  manufacturers  and  business  men,  to 

3396-8 


the  Governing  Board  of  this  Institution  for  the  comprehensive  and  liberal 
manner  in  which  this  question  has  here  been  met. 

As  this  is  the  first  instance  in  this  country,  in  which  an  institution  of 
learning  has  adopted  a  systematic  course  of  instruction  having  for  its 
object,  exclusively,  the  preparation  and  training  of  young  men  for  the 
pursuit  of  this  comparative!}-  new  profession,  I  propose  to  direct  your 
attention,  this  evening,  to  several  points,  which,  it  appears  to  me,  may 
be  appropriately  dwelt  upon  in  connection  with  the  subject. 

FIRST.  As  to  what  constitutes  Mechanical  or  Dynamical  Engineer- 
ing— its  relations  to  Civil  Engineering,  and  other  applied  sciences,  the 
nature  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught,  and  the  character  of  the  instruction 
to  be  imparted. 

SECOND.  The  relations  of  theory  and  practice,  considered  as  modes 
of  preparation,  or  training,  for  the  pursuit  of  the  profession. 

THIRD.  The  course  of  special  studies  to  be  pursued  ;  the  relations  of 
these  studies  to  each  other ;  and  their  applications  or  bearings,  in  regard 
to  the  uses  which  they  subserve. 

FOURTH.  The  channels  of  useful  employment  open  to  engineers  in 
this  profession,  and  the  beneficial  influences  which  must  be  exerted  in 
various  wrays  by  the  numbers  of  highly  educated  young  men  whom  it  is 
to  be  hoped  this  Institution  may  send  out  into  business  communities. 

1.  What  is  Dynamical  Engineering? 

No  one  who  has  watched  the  progress  of  the  general  science  of  En- 
gineering, can  have  failed  to  notice  that  it  has  become  a  very  complex 
science  in  its  numerous  applications,  both  in  theory  and  in  practice.  In 
a  general  sense  it  embraces  Civil  Engineering,  Mining  Engineering, 
Mechanical  Engineering,  Hydraulic  Engineering,  and  Military  Engi- 
neering, besides  many  special  applications  of  Physics,  Chemistry,  and 
Mechanics,  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  such  as  relate  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  metals,  refining,  distillation,  the  manufacture  and  distribution 
of  illuminating  gas,  etc.,  to  which  no  special  appellations  are  given ;  so 
that  the  term  "  Engineer"  now  carries  with  it  no  definite  meaning, 
although  it  is  in  very  general  use.  All  these  branches  of  Engineering 
science  are  based  to  some  extent,  though  not  entirely,  on  the  same 
general  principles  ;-but  they  are  so  diverse  in  the  applications  or  uses  of 
those  principles,  that  no  one  person  can  attempt  to  master  thoroughly 
the  theory  and  practice  of  more  than  one  of  these  special  branches. 
This  condition  of  things  has  arisen  in  part  from  the  rapid  development 
and  progress  of  that  branch  which  has  received  in  this  country  the  name 
of  Mechanical  Engineering. 

This  branch  of  engineering  may  be  said  to  embrace  within  its  range 
of  applications  all  the  natural  sciences  which  relate  to  the  construction 
and  employment  of  machinery  for  utilizing  the  natural  sources  of  power 
in  the  performance  of  useful  work,  and  the  construction  and  use  of  all 
varieties  of  machinery  driven  by  those  sources  of  power,  for  mining,  civil 
engineering,  commercial,  industrial,  and  manufacturing  purposes.  To 
this  branch  of  applied  science  we  owe  the  marvellous  progress  or  changes 
made  during  the  last  few  years  in  all  the  social  conditions  and  relations 
of  civilized  life,  such  as  the  changes  in  modes  of  transportation,  the  im- 
proved facilities  in  mining,  and  the  preparation  of  iron,  steel,  and  other 
materials  for  the  civil  engineer  and  architect;  and  also  the  facilities 
afforded  for  manufactures  of  infinite  variety  and  uses. 


Under  this  condition  of  rapid  development,  the  scientific  literature  of 
late  years,  as  far  as  engineering  has  been  concerned,  has  been  largely, 
and  at  some  periods  almost  exclusively,  devoted  to  this  new  and  pro- 
gressive science. 

From  this  circumstance,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  practice  of  the 
profession  has  been  confined  to  a  certain  extent,  to  persons  connected 
with  large  engine  or  machinery  establishments  both  in  this  country  and 
in  Europe,  considerable  confusion  of  expression  has  arisen  in  the  use  of 
terms  relating  to  it.  In  some  institutions  of  learning,  for  instance,  par- 
tial courses  of  instruction  have  been  instituted  under  the  head  of  "  Me- 
chanics and  Engineering,"  "  Applied  Mechanics,"  "Industrial  Mechanics," 
and  "  Applied  Mathematics."  While  in  the  actual  practice  of  the  pro- 
fession the  terms ''Practical  Engineering,"  "Steam  Engineering,"  and 
"Mechanical  Engineering,"  have  been  variously  and  indiscriminately 
employed. 

From  these  circumstances  a  necessity  has  arisen  for  more  clearly  de- 
fining the  limits,  both  in  theory  and  practice,  of  the  two  great  branches 
of  engineering  which  comprehend  and  embrace  all  others,  civil  engineer- 
ing and  mechanical  engineering.  And  it  has  become  evident  that  either 
the  whole  science  of  modern  Engineering  must  be  considered  and  taught 
as  one  science  embracing  all  these  specialties,  or  a  proper  division  and 
distinction  should  be  adopted,  having  reference  to  the  elements  of  theory 
and  practice  in  these  two  branches. 

In  an  institution  where  these  elements  are  to  be  taught,  there  should 
be  definiteness  of  ideas  as  well  as  of  expression.  It  has  been  properly 
assumed  here  that  such  a  distinction  should  be  made ;  and  two  courses 
of  instruction  will  be  open  to  the  student  according  to  his  desire  to 
pursue  one  or  the  other  branch  of  the  profession. 

The  division  between  these  courses  may  be  broadly  and  definitely 
marked,  from  the  nature  of  the  subjects  to  be  most  prominently  taught, 
and  the  range  and  character  of  their  application. 

Civil  Engineering  embraces,  as  its  objects  especially,  works  of  a 
general  or  public  character,  general  surveys,  the  building  of  roads,  rail- 
roads, canals,  bridges,  public  buildings,  water-works,  the  improvement 
of  rivers  and  harbors,  the  construction  of  docks,  piers,  dams,  and  reser- 
voirs. 

Mechanical  Engineering  is  applicable  rather  to  works  connected  with 
private  enterprise,  such  as  the  designing  and  construction  of  steam 
machinery  for  the  purposes  of  navigation  and  transportation,  the  adap- 
tation of  such  machinery  to  mills  and  factories,  the  construction  of 
water-wheels,  the  fabrication  of  materials,  iron,  steel,  and  brass,  for  the 
purposes  of  the  engineer,  the  architect,  and  manufacturer ;  and  the 
manufacture  of  implements  and  machinery  for  agriculture,  for  mining, 
and  for  domestic  purposes. 

But  the  prominent  feature  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  that  which 
contributes  more  than  any  other  to  elevate  it  to  the  rank  of  a  liberal  or 
learned  profession,  and  at  the  same  time  separates  it  from  the  science  of 
Civil  Engineering,  is,  that  all  its  operations  relate  to  power,  motion,  and 
work. 

Civil  Engineering  structures  are  based  on  the  principles  of  statical 
equilibrium.  They  are  passive.  Freedom  from  motion,  permanent  rest, 
and  immobility,  are  the  objects  most  sought ;  while  in  Mechanical  En- 
gineering, energy,  velocity,  the  movement  of  masses  in  the  performance 
of  useful  work,  are  the  controlling  features,  without  which  this  branch 


6 

of  applied  science  could  not  have  existed.  And  hence  it  embraces  the 
entire  field  of  Dynamical  Science — the  Science  of  Motion  and  Power. 

The  term  u  Mechanical  Engineering,"  applied  to  such  a  profession, 
although  that  which  is  in  most  current  use,  is  not  popular,  even  with 
those  who  practise  it,  because  it  is  not  fully  indicative  of  the  nature  of 
their  calling  nor  of  their  acquirements. 

This  difficulty  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  term  Mechanical  is  not 
employed  in  the  sense  which  it  would  derive  from  the  word  Mechanics, 
as  descriptive  of  a  science  of  mathematically  applied  principles  :  but 
from  the  more  restricted  sense  in  which  it  is  used  to  designate  the  work 
of  construction  of  a  machine,  and  the  labors  of  the  artisan  or  mechanic. 
It  originated  in  the  large  machinery  establishments,  and  at  first  referred 
especially  to  the  manipulations  necessary  to  produce  and  combine  the 
material  parts  of  a  machine,  rather  than  to  the  intelligent  application  of 
the  laws  of  Statics  and  Dynamics,  in  designing  and  adapting  machinery 
for  the  performance  of  specific  work.  In  the  sense  derived  from  the 
word  mechanics  as  a  science,  civil  engineering  is  also  a  mechanical 
science  ;  the  only  difference  between  this  and  mechanical  engineering 
being  that  one  is  based  on  the  principles  of  Statics,  and  the  other  upon 
Dynamics.  These  considerations  would  have  little  importance  if  the 
questions  involved  were  merely  those  of  words;  but  as  before  remarked 
they  involve  confusion  of  ideas,  especially  in  the  popular  understanding 
of  the  subject.  It  has  not,  always,  been  deemed  essential,  for  instance, 
that  a  mechanical  engineer  should  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
science  of  mechanics,  and  his  calling  has  been  regarded  as  a  trade  or  an 
art,  rather  than  as  a  learned  profession ;  as  depending  more  on  know- 
ledge and  experience  in  manipulations,  or  the  labor  of  the  hands  and  the 
use  of  tools,  than  on  the  exertions  of  the  intellect. 

For  these  reasons  it  seems  desirable  that  a  more  appropriate  designa- 
tion should  be  found  for  a  profession  which  demands  the  highest  power 
of  the  mind  for  its  successful  prosecution  :  and  the  term  "  Dynamical" 
is  one  which  would  not  only  express  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  this 
profession,  but  would  also  serve  to  distinguish  it  clearly  from  Civil  En- 
gineering. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  whole  subject  of  the 
application  and  use  of  machinery  may  be  divided  into  two  parts  or 
divisions :  one  embracing  the  laws  of  pure  mechanism,  and  not  depend- 
ing in  any  manner  upon  the  sources  or  amount  of  power  used,  nor  es- 
pecially upon  the  quality  and  strength  of  materials;  but  rather  upon 
the  ingenious  contrivances  and  combinations  of  the  parts  of  a  machine 
to  produce  a  specific  effect.  This  division  embraces  all  that  useful  class 
of  inventions  which  now  form  the  most  indispensable  aids  to  human 
labor;  such  as  machines  for  sewing,  spinning,  weaving;  machines  for 
making  nails,  screws,  bolts,  nuts,  &c.;  tools  for  turning  and  shaping 
materials,  and  thousands  of  others,  the  mere  mention  of  which  would 
form  an  extended  catalogue. 

These,  depending  upon  mechanism  alone,  require  for  their  production 
only  a  sort  of  natural  inventive  talent,  which  is  brought  out  when 
occasion  requires.  Under  the  wise  protection  of  patent  laws,  this  talent 
is  constantly  stimulated  even  in  uneducated  minds  ;  and  there  is  now 
scarcely  a  department  of  human  industry  which  does  not  avail  itself  of 
useful  inventions  for  multiplying  labor,  or  producing  certain  results 
which  could  not  otherwise  be  effected. 

This  branch  of  the  subject,  however,  does  not  involve  the  idea  or 


necessity  of  engineering.     It  properly  belongs  to  the  mechanical  part 
of  the  profession. 

The  other  division  of  the  subject  depends  upon  the  intelligent  appli- 
cation of  the  SCIENCE  of  MECHANICS  in  developing,  utilizing,  controlling, 
and  adapting  those  forces  of  nature  which  are  employed  in  driving 
steamships,  mills,  factories,  railroad  trains,  and  forges :  involving  also 
the  sciences  of  Chemistry,  Physics,  and  Metallurgy,  and  requiring  the 
application  of  all  these  sciences  combined.  The  prosecution  of  this 
branch  of  the  subject  assumes  the  character  of  ^profession,  and  calls 
for  the  highest  degree  of  theoretical  training  for  the  solution  of  its  diffi- 
cult problems. 

2.  Theory  and  Practice. 

The  chief  obstacle  to  the  introduction  of  full  and  thorough  courses  of 
study  in  the  applications  of  mechanical  science  in  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, heretofore,  has  existed  in  popular  misconception  on  these  points, 
which  has  given  rise  to  a  mistaken  preference  for  purely  practical 
training,  and  a  disregard  of  the  higher  value  of  preliminary  instruction 
in  the  sciences  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  successful  practice. 

Pure  Mechanism  is  a  subject  so  entirely  practical  that  in  this  country 
nearly  every  man  is  an  inventor,  if  occasion  requires;  and  particular 
machines  of  great  value  and  public  benefit  have  been  devised  by  men 
who  have  a  genius  for  invention,  but  are  not  learned  in  the  sciences. 
And  this  general  aptitude  for  devising  mechanical  means  to  accomplish 
special  ends,  the  skill  acquired  by  all  good  mechanics  in  the  use  of 
tools,  and  the  peculiar  knowledge  of  workmanship  and  manipulation 
which  can  be  attained  only  by  practice,  have  given  to  the  old  issues  and 
controversies  between  theory  and  practice  more  apparent  real  founda- 
tion in  employments  connected  with  machinery  than  in  any  other. 

The  true  question  at  issue  is  how  best  to  prepare  young  men  during 
the  first  four  or  five  years  of  their  career  for  the  useful  occupations  to 
which  they  may  thereafter  be  called  in  the  general  practice  of  their 
profession. 

This  is  a  question  which  chiefly  interests  parents  who  wish  to  give 
their  sons  the  benefit  of  the  most  efficient  and  useful  instruction  during 
the  few  years  preceding  the  time  when  they  are  to  choose  and  act  for 
themselves.  It  interests  students  who  are  personally  the  most  con- 
cerned. It  interests  teachers  who  desire  to  confer  every  possible  benefit 
on  their  pupils  ;  and  it  concerns,  in  an  important  degree,  the  public 
wrho  are  to  be  the  employers  of  the  young  men  who  present  themselves 
as  qualified  for  responsible  trusts  and  positions. 

In  choosing  between  the  practical  and  theoretical  sj^stems  of  instruc- 
tion, two  courses  are  open  ;  one,  an  apprenticeship  in  a  machinery 
establishment,  and  the  other  a  course  of  stud}'  in  a  school  of  applied 
science ;  each  to  occupy  the  period  of  life  from  the  age  of  seventeen  to 
twenty-one  or  twenty -two  years. 

From  which  of  these  courses  will  a  young  man  emerge  best  prepared 
for  subsequent  advancement  and  usefulness  ? 

1.  The  practical  course  ignores  books  and  the  study  of  the  natural 
sciences.  A  boy  on  entering  a  machine-shop  is  placed  at  some  simple 
mechanical  work,  the  use  of  the  file,  or  chipping  hammer,  or  lathe.  In 
two  or  three  years  he  may  acquire  experience  in  finishing  the  finer  parts 
of  machinery.  He  will  be  fortunate  if  at  the  end  of  four  years  he  is 


entrusted  with  the  fitting,  "  setting  up,"  and  operating  the  most  simple 
engine  or  machine. 

During  this  time  he  has  learned  only  an  art,  and  the  use  o/  tools, 
with  perhaps  a  few  simple  mechanical  combinations.  Beyond  these  he 
has  received  no  instruction,  unless,  actuated  by  unusual  ambition  and 
energy,  he  has  devoted  his  evenings,  after  days  of  hard  labor,  to  stud}''. 
He  must  otherwise  remain  ignorant  of  mathematics,  of  drawing,  the 
l«iws  of  mechanics,  and  of  physics  and  chemistry.  He  has  but  little 
opportunity  of  studying  the  general  arrangements  and  adaptation  of 
machinery  to  various  uses  ;  and  in  learning  the  principles  of  a  science 
which  treats  of  the  development,  application,  transmission,  and  control 
of  POWER,  in  the  most  efficient  and  economical  manner — and  in  which 
the  laws  of  heat,  pressure,  velocity,  friction,  the  momentum  of  masses, 
must  be  regarded  as  specific  quantities,  to  be  mathematically  and 
numerically  determined — he  has  made  no  progress. 

If  he  obtains  a  position  in  the  drawing  or  designing  room,  of  such 
an  establishment,  he  may  acquire  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  but  his  time 
is  absorbed  in  making  tracings  and  working  drawings  under  the  direc- 
tion of  superiors  who  have  no  time  to  impart  general  instruction  in  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  work  on  which  he  is  engaged.  A  shop, 
or  machinery  establishment  is  a  business  establishment,  not  a  school  of 
instruction,  and  it  is  rather  a  favor  to  young  men  to  allow  them  the 
limited  privileges  of  such  information  as  they  may  acquire  through 
their  own  observations  and  experience. 

Such  a  course  may  lead  to  a  high  degree  of  skill  and  excellence  in  the 
specialties  of  one  establishment,  but  even  in  such  a  case  the  knowledge 
is  gained  by  imitation.  New  problems  even  in  that  specialty — which 
involve  new  forms  and  dimensions — are  apt  to  be  discussed  and  solved 
by  reference  to  the  nearest  example  or  precedent. 

There  are  instances  of  men  who  have  reached  an  enviable  degree  of 
excellence  in  the  profession,  whose  first  years  have  been  passed  in  the 
workshop;  but  such  men  have  invariably  possessed  peculiar  qualifica- 
tions of  industry  and  application;  and  while  enjoying  the  opportunities 
of  practice,  they  have  found  time  for  the  study  of  the  sciences;  and 
have  become  learned  in  theory  as  well  as  skilful  in  practice.  Such  men 
are  rare;  and  while  they  furnish  examples  to  be  imitated,  they  are 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule. 

Purely  practical  men  frequently  commit  errors  which  are  disastrous 
in  their  consequences,  from  a  want  of  knowledge  of  some  general  prin- 
ciple, the  understanding  of  which  would  have  led  to  more  definite  and 
correct  reasoning,  and  less  dependence  on  that  sort  of  intuitive  know- 
ledge which  they  to  a  certain  extent  acquire — "  the  rule  of  thumb.'7 
Every  new  problem  is  solved  to  a  certain  extent  by  trial,  which  involves 
all  the  expense  and  risks  that  universally  attend  experiments. 

Under  such  circumstances  advancement  must  be  slow  and  tedious. 
Years  of  life  are  spent  in  acquiring  knowledge  that  is  already  within 
reach  in  the  recorded  labors  and  experiences  of  others,  and  embodied  in 
laws  and  general  principles  applicable  to  every  case  of  practice  that 
ma}^  arise.  A  knowledge  of  standard  works  on  the  various  applications 
of  machinery,  and  the  ability  to  read  and  comprehend  the  current  sci- 
entific literature  of  the  day,  are  often  found  to  be  essential  to  success 
only  after  the  period  of  life,  and  the  opportunities  for  acquiring  habits 
of  study,  have  passed. 

Innumerable  instances  might  be  given  to  illustrate  the  truth  of  these 


9 

statements.  In  conversation  with  an  intelligent  young  mechanic  a  few 
days  since  in  New  York,  I  alluded  to  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School, 
and  especially  to  the  project  of  a  course  of  instruction  in  Mechanical 
Engineering.  My  object  was  to  draw  from  him  his  views  on  this  very 
subject  of  thoretical  and  practical  training.  As  he  was  a  man  of  exten- 
sive practical  experience,  of  clear  judgment,  full  of  resources,  self- 
reliant,  and  altogether  one  of  the  best  practical  machinists  in  this 
country,  I  had  great  confidence  in  his  judgment,  and  awaited  his 
response  with  considerable  interest.  He  replied  to  my  remarks  by 
relating  an  incident  in  his  own  life,  informing  me  at  the  same  time  that 
it  was  the  first  time  he  had  ever  "told  this  story  on  himself." 

Shortly  after  he  had  completed  his  apprenticeship  in  one  of  the  large 
machinery  establishments  of  New  York,  and  while  still  in  the  service 
of  that  establishment  as  a  machinist,  he  was  selected  by  the  firm  to  take 
a  Cornish  Pumping  Engine  to  the  coal  fields  of  Maryland,  and  there  to 
erect  it  in  a  certain  mine  for  which  it  had  been  manufactured.  He 
received  no  special  instructions  for  his  difficult  task,  and  was  too  much 
elated,  and  too  confident  in  his  own  acquirements,  to  imagine  that  he 
should  meet  with  any  difficulty. 

On  arriving  at  the  mine  he  found  no  mining-  engineer  to  give  him 
information,  but  he  was  told  where  he  would  find  the  shaft;  and  was 
informed  that  the  contract  with  the  Iron  Works  was  for  the  engine  and 
pumps  to  be  erected  complete  and  in  working  order.  He  had  never 
seen  a  coal  mine,  and  had  formed  no  conceptions  in  regard  to  mining 
operations.  On  looking  for  the  shaft,  he  found,  to  use  his  own  expres- 
sion, a  black  hole  in  the  ground  about  twelve  feet  square ;  and  was 
told  that  it  was  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  deep.  Scarcely  daring  to 
approach  the  edge  of  such  a  formidable  black  hole,  and  yet  knowing 
that  part  of  his  machinery  must  go  down  that  hole  to  the  bottom,  to  be 
connected  with  the  engine  at  the  surface,  his  courage  and  enthusiasm 
began  to  abate,  and  he  felt,  for  the  first  time,  quite  serious  over  his  pros- 
pects. After  reflecting  on  the  situation,  and  having  too  much  pride  to 
return  home  to  ask  for  information,  he  decided  upon  a  plan  for  getting 
out  of  his  difficulties.  He  had  learned  that  several  weeks  must  elapse 
before  the  mine  would  be  ready  for  his  machinery,  and  accordingly 
started  by  the  next  train  for  Philadelphia,  where  he  had  friends  who 
he  knew  might  assist  him,  not  in  his  engineering  operations,  but  in 
finding  some  book  on  mining  engineering.  Without  informing  his 
friends  of  his  embarrassments,  he  procured  a  work  on  coal  mining, 
and  returned  at  once  to  the  mine,  where  he  shut  himself  up  for  several 
weeks,  while  preparations  were  going  on  in  the  shaft,  and  spent  days 
and  nights  in  studying  the  application  of  pumping  engines  to  mining- 
purposes. 

1  With  his  limited  acquirements  he  found  this  hard  work,  but  when 
the  mine  was  ready  he  was  also  prepared,  and  putting  on  his  oiled-cloth 
overalls,  he  went  down  the  shaft  and  proceeded  successfully  and  tri- 
umphantly with  his  work.  In  due  time  he  finished  his  task  and  returned 
to  his  employers.  "But,"  said  he,  "I  never  told  them  how  I  was 
enabled  to  do  it;  though  ever  since  that  time  I  have  had  great  respect 
for  scientific  books.  MyjDnly  regret  is  that  I  know  so  little  of  them, 
and  that  I  had  not  a  good  scientific  education  to  start  with." 

2.  By  the  other  system  or  course  of  preparation,  a  young  man  begins 
his  career  under  instructors  who  are  personally  interested  in  his  ad- 
vancement, and  who  acquaint  him  with  text-books  by  which  he  not  only 


10 

acquires  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  his  profession,  but 
also  of  the  rules  of  their  application  under  all  ordinary  circumstances. 
He  begins  with  draining  and  mathematics :  the  first,  an  art  as  indis- 
pensable to  the  competent  engineer,  as  tools  to  a  mechanic ;  the  second, 
a  written  language  by  which  alone  he  can  treat  problems  of  mechanics 
in  a  practical  manner,  and  reason  upon  them  with  definiteness  and  pre- 
cision. He  is  made  familiar  with  the  principles  of  all  the  sciences  which 
bear  upon  his  profession,  and  learns  how  readily  to  apply  them. 

Through  the  written  experiences,  deductions,  and  classifications  of 
the  most  eminent  writers,  he  is  made  acquainted  with  their  applications 
in  a  variety  of  forms  greater  than  would  occur  to  him  in  a  lifetime  of 
practice. 

He  is  furnished  with  opportunities  of  studying  not  only  the  detailed 
construction  of  all  classes  of  machines,  but  also  the  arrangement  and 
adaptation  of  the  same  to  every  variety  of  useful  work ;  and  thus  pos- 
sesses the  advantage  of  a  kind  of  practice  superior  to  that  of  the  work- 
shop. 

But  the  chief  advantage  of  the  course  of  scientific  instructions  lies 
in  the  thorough  knowledge  acquired  of  the  applications  of  Dynamical 
Science.  There  are  no  problems  which  require  a  higher  degree  of  men- 
tal culture  and  acquirement,  nor  more  profound  and  concentrated  rea- 
soning, than  some  of  the  problems  of  dynamics  which  arise  in  the 
modern  practice  of  this  profession. 

The  questions  connected  with  the  dynamical  theories  of  heat  em- 
ployed as  a  source  of  power; — the  propulsion  of  ships  by  steam,  the 
movement  of  heavy  railway  trains,  the  raising  of  water,  the  construc- 
tion of  heavy  steam  and  water-wheel  machinery  for  rolling  mills,  forges, 
and  factories — all  involving  the  movement  of  heavy  masses,  and  the 
overcoming  of  corresponding  resistances — are  subjects  which  can  be 
successfully  treated  only  by  the  most  rigid  applications  of  the  princi- 
ples of  mechanics. 

This  is  a  branch  of  the  profession  which  no  amount  of  practice  alone 
can  reach.  Sooner  or  later,  every  one  who  aspires  to  become  a  con- 
sulting engineer  must  devote  himself  to  the  study  of  the  laws,  theories, 
rules,  and  formulae,  which  constitute  this  science. 

Connected  with  the  dynamical  problems  which  belong  to  the  motions 
of  masses,  and  the  transmission  of  power,  there  are  necessarily  in- 
volved at  every  step  in  practice,  important  questions  relating  to  the 
forms  and  strength  of  those  parts  of  engines  and  machinery  by  which 
this  transmission  of  power  is  affected,  or  by  which  heavy  masses  in 
motion  are  sustained  in  their  relative  positions. 

On  the  proper  proportions  and  dimensions  of  these  parts  depend  not 
only  the  entire  economy  of  first  construction  (a  most  important  and 
vital  consideration),  but  also  the  safety  and  durability  of  the  machin- 
ery, and  often  the  entire  success  or  failure  of  business  enterprises. 

How  many  business  men  have  felt  the  pecuniary  consequences  of  the 
breaking  down  of  the  machinery  of  steam-ships,  mills,  or  factories,  in 
which  their  capital  was  invested,  through  errors  or  mistakes  of  judg- 
ment in  determining  the  dimensions  and  strength  of  some  important 
part  of  such  machinery ! 

Unfortunately  too  many  instances  will  suggest  themselves  to  men 
who  have  been  engaged  in  commercial  or  manufacturing  operations,  and 
the  subject  is  not  always  an  agreeable  one  to  dwell  upon.  In  such 
cases  of  damage  to  machinery  it  is  not  always  the  cost  of  reconstruc- 


11 

tion,  or  repairs,  that  causes  the  greatest  loss,  but  often  the  entire  stop- 
page of  a  business  undertaking  for  days,  weeks,  and  even  months. 

On  the  other  hand,  how  often  has  every  manufacturer  of  heavy  ma- 
chinery seen  thousands  of  dollars  thrown  away  in  surplus  or  unneces- 
sary material  introduced  through  ignorance  or  want  of  exact  calcula- 
tions of  strength — carrying  with  it  all  the  profits  of  manufacture — or 
has  been  obliged  to  witness  the  throwing  of  tons  of  finished  work  into 
the  scrap-heap,  on  account  of  failure  in  determining  proper  proportions 
or  dimensions  by  subordinates  entrusted  with  this  duty. 

Between  excessive  dimensions  on  the  one  hand,  and  inadequate  pro- 
portions on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  chance  or  scope  for  the  "  rule  of 
thumb" — there  is  no  resource  or  safety  but  in  rigid  mathematical  solu- 
tions and  determinations. 

No  better  illustrations  can  be  given,  perhaps,  on  these  points,  than 
the  use  of  two  simple  but  important  forms  or  pieces  in  nearly  all  ma- 
chines: the  revolving  shaft,  and  the  beam. 

The  shaft  is  a  piece  or  part  of  a  machine  which  in  some  cases  may 
have  no  other  office  to  perform  than  the  mere  transmission  of  motion, 
while  in  others  it  may  be  required  to  transmit  not  only  motion  but 
pressure,  amounting  in  some  cases  to  hundreds  of  tons.  How  shall  the 
proper  dimensions  of  a  shaft,  for  a  steamship  for  instance,  be  determined 
which  must  transmit  such  a  force  ?  It  is  easy  to  perceive  that  its  mag- 
nitude must  be  great,  but  no  effort  of  judgment  nor  of  the  imagination 
can  fix  definitely  the  proportions  ;  nor  are  there  an}*  rules  of  practice  by 
which  they  may  be  determined,  except  those  derived  from  the  laws  of 
mechanics,  applicable  to  this  problem,  which  are  the  results  of  theoretical 
and  experimental  investigations.  And  there  is  no  other  mode  of  ap- 
plying these  rules  than  by  the  aid  of  mathematical  language  and  for- 
mulae. Failures  to  apply  these  laws  of  mechanics — first  to  determining 
the  strains  to  which  shafts  will  be  subjected,  and  then  to  adapting  the 
dimensions  and  strength  necessary  to  resist  these  strains — have  doubt- 
less caused  many  disasters  to  steamships;  although  it  must  be  said  that 
in  very  large  shafts  a  difficulty  of  another  character  has  been  met, 
which  is  not  easily  overcome,  and  which  forms  one  of  the  unsolved 
problems  of  mechanical  engineering — the  difficulty  of  producing  per- 
fectly homogeneous  forgings  in  such  large  masses. 

The  beam  is  another  illustration  of  the  same  character.  In  some 
machines,  such  as  the  hydrostatic  press,  for  compressing  cotton,  for 
expressing  oils  from  seeds,  and  for  other  purposes,  short  beams  are 
often  exposed  to  such  enormous  pressure  that  the  breaking  of  such 
beams  is  of  common  occurrence,  giving  rise  to  serious  interruptions  and 
losses. 

The  same  piece  expanded  in  length,  may  sustain  the  walls  of  a  build- 
ing, and  still  further  extended  and  composed  of  many  pieces,  it  may 
constitute  an  iron  bridge,  of  many  hundred  feet  span. 

In  all  these  uses  of  the  beam,  the  same  general  principles  are  appli- 
cable to  the  determination  of  dimensions  and  proportions  ;  and  although 
it  is  apparently  the  most  simple  element  or  piece  in  all  machines  or 
structures,  yet  there  is  none  which  so  absolutely  demands  the  aid  of 
applied  mechanics  in  every  separate  case  of  its  adaptation. 

There  are  many  young  men  throughout  the  country  who  desire  to  be- 
come mechanical  engineers,  who  have  serious  doubts  in  regard  to  the 
best  course  of  preparation  to  be  followed,  and  these  illustrations  are 
given  merely  to  show  in  what  particulars,  even  in  the  most  simple  parts 


12 

of  machinery,  practical  experience  and  observation  alone  are  often  in- 
sufficient. 

It  is  not  contended  that  theoretical  instruction  alone  will  make  a 
competent  engineer,  nor  that  practical  men  possess  no  advantages  in 
qualifications  that  may  not  be  learned  from  books  and  instructors.  On 
the  contrary,  there  is  much  to  be  learned  that  can  only  be  acquired  by 
practice.  The  important  conclusion  at  which  we  must  arrive  is  that 
thorough  scientific  preparation  should  precede  practice. 

This  is  the  only  true  solution  of  that  important  question  which  has 
led  to  so  much  controversy,  how  to  harmonize  Theory  find  Practice.  It 
must  be  understood  and  accepted  that  practice  in  any  profession  is  es- 
sential, and  necessary  to  excellence — but  this  is  the  business  of  life. 
There  is  no  short  road  to  it.  As  long  as  the  life  of  a  professional  man 
may  last,  he  will  find  new  problems  to  solve,  new  cases  requiring  the 
original  applications  of  the  principles  of  his  profession.  And  no  greater 
fallacy  has  ever  obtained  credit,  than  that  which  presumes  that  what 
must  be  the  work  of  a  lifetime,  may  be  acquired  in  three  or  four  years 
of  youthful  practice. 

On  the  other  hand,  every  problem  which  occurs  in  practical  life,  in 
any  profession,  involves  the  application  of  a  set  of  general  principles 
or  laws,  and  demands  certain  acquirements,  which  may  be  thoroughly 
mastered  during  the  period  allotted  to  academical  instruction  ;  and 
without  these  acquirements  eminence  is  unattainable.  Ity  such  a  course 
a  young  man  finds  himself,  it  is  true,  at  the  end  of  his  academic  career, 
without  practical  experience;  but  he  may  rest  assured  that  in  the  mere 
question  of  time  he  has  lost  nothing ;  and  if  he  will  but  resolutely  and 
modestly  begin  life,  in  the  lowest  subordinate  positions,  if  necessary,  he 
will  have  secured  all  the  requisites  for  rapid  advancement  to  the  highest 
spheres  of  usefulness  and  eminence. 

3,  Suggestions  in  Eegard  to  a  Course  of  Study. 

We  may  now  consider  what  should  be  the  course  of  study  and  pre- 
paration lor  the  attainment  of  the  objects  aimed  at  in  the  profession  of 
Mechanical  or  Dynamical  Engineering. 

From  the  nature  of  these  objects  the  course  may  be  easily  and  defi- 
nitely marked  out ;  and  it  will  be  found  sufficiently  comprehensive  to 
occupy  every  available  hour  of  three  or  four  years  of  faithful  applica- 
tion, and  of  such  variety  as  to  excite  the  increasing  interest  and  ambi- 
tion of  every  student  who  may  follow  it. 

The  first,  though  not  the  most  difficult  subject  which  demands  atten- 
tion, is  drawing.  All  are  aware  that  this  is  merel}'  an  auxiliary  art, 
but  it  is  one  which  is  indispensable. 

It  is  impossible  to  design  complicated  or  even  simple  machinery,  and 
to  present  the  ideas  involved  to  the  workmen  who  are  to  execute  it, 
without  carefully  prepared  drawings. 

Bat  more  than  this,  the  drawing-board  of  the  engineer  is  a  help  to 
his  thoughts.  While  the  main  ideas  involved  in  a  machine  are  first  de- 
rived from  the  operations  of  the  intellect,  brought  out  perhaps  by  mathe- 
matical calculations,  all  the  minor  details  and  proportions  of  the  parts 
can  be  properly  studied  only  by  graphical  representation.  The  dimen- 
sions and  strength  of  the  various  pieces  are  often  suggested  by  the 
relations  which  are  brought  out  in  the  drawing;  and  the  conceptions  of 
the  mind  are  verified  or  corrected  as  the  work  progresses. 


13 

Moreover,  the  solution  of  many  of  the  problems  of  applied  mathema- 
tics which  occur  in  constructions,  may  be  most  readily  accomplished 
graphically.  The  instruction  in  this  subject  should  be  unremitting  and 
progressive,  so, that  at  the  end  of  the  course  the  student  may  make  de- 
signs and  working  drawings  without  special  effort  of  the  mind  or  ima- 
gination, but  with  readiness  and  accuracy. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  on  the  importance  of  the  study  of  pure 
mathematics.  As  it  is  the  foundation  of  all  the  applications  of  Me- 
chanics, and  largely  of  applied  Physics,  it  is  eminently  a  practical 
science,  and  as  such  should  be  thoroughly  studied.  Fortunately,  for 
the  ordinary  and  usual  cases  of  practice,  the  more  difficult  branches  are 
not  so  essential,  and  there  is  no  reason  wiry  the  student  should  not 
mainly  devote  his  time  to  gaining,  by  constant  daily  drill,  that  kind  of 
mastery  over  the  practical  branches  of  the  subject  that  will  enable  him 
to  make  use  of  his  knowledge  with  readiness  and  facility. 

He  will  find  in  the  applications  of  this  science  to  mechanics,  and  in 
the  applications  of  mechanics  to  machmer}7,  constant  use  for  the  ele- 
mentary theorems  and  principles,  of  algebra,  plane,  descriptive,  and 
analytical  geometry,  trigonometry,  and  calculus  ;  and  the  knowledge  of 
these  subjects  should  be,  if  possible,  as  familiar  to  him  as  his  mother 
tongue. 

The  Science  of  Mechanics  is  that  which  furnishes  the  fundamental 
principles  and  laws  on  which  the  profession  of  Mechanical  Engineering 
is  based. 

It  may  be  presented  to  the  student  in  two  aspects:  first,  as  a  Natural 
Science  capable  of  explanation  and  comprehension  in  ordinary  language. 
In  this  view  its  principles  are  apt  to  make  the  strongest  impression  and 
to  be  most  easily  remembered.  Second,  as  a  preliminary  to  practical 
applications,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  treat  this  subject  mathemati- 
cally; and  in  analytical  mechanics,  we  have  the  most  beautiful,  useful, 
and  instructive  illustration  of  applied  mathematics, 

It  is  important  that  this  science  should  be  thoroughly  understood 
independently  of  its  practical  applications.  These  various  applications 
constitute  a  separate  branch  of  study  which  has  been  denominated 

APPLIED  MECHANICS. 

This  branch  of  science  involves  elements  of  knowledge  which  cannot 
be  derived  from  theory  alone. 

When  the  exact  principles  and  formulae  of  pure  mechanics  are  applied 
in  special  cases  to  the  various  problems  of  practice,  it  is  found  that 
these  formulae  require  modification.  All  motions  of  bodies,  for  instance, 
tal^e  place  in  resisting  media,  air,  or  water.  The  physical  properties  of 
bodies  interfere  with  the  exactness  of  the  results  of  purely  theoretical 
deductions.  The  properties  of  strength,  hardness,  elasticity,  cohesion, 
and  the  laws  of  friction,  are  subject  to  change,  with  circumstances  of 
use,  temperature,  and  various  other  causes  ;  so  that  an  extensive  range 
of  experimental  results,  the  fruits  of  laborious  investigations  and  obser- 
vations, must  be  combined  with  theoretical  principles  to  produce  rules 
of  practice. 

Moreover,  analytical  mechanics  treats  of  forces,  masses,  motions,  and 
the  relations  between  them,  in  an  abstract  manner,  without  reference 
to  real  magnitudes  or  sensible  objects ;  while  in  applied  mechanics, 
forces  become  pressures,  resistances,  strains,  or  tensions  which  arise 
in  the  utilization  of  materials  or  of  power;  and  problems  involving 
heat,  weight,  inertia,  velocity,  cohesion,  and  friction,  must  all  be  solved 


H 

by  regarding  these  as  quantities  to  which  numerical  values  must  be 
given,  and  which  may  be  weighed,  measured,  or  calculated,  each  by  its 
own  special  unit. 

This  combination  of  theoretical  mechanics  with  the  results  of  experi- 
ment, and  the  application  of  general  laws  to  special  cases,  constitutes 
the  subject  of  applied  mechanics. 

Inasmuch  as  it  is  a  subject  of  particular  applications,  instruction  in 
it  must  embrace  many  of  the  features  of  actual  practice,  between  which, 
and  pure  theory,  it  is  the  connecting  link. 

Besides  the  mathematical  sciences  there  are  others,  a  knowledge  of 
which  may  be  regarded  as  essential.  The  Mechanical  Engineer  is  obliged 
to  deal  exclusively  in  operations  which  involve  the  use  or  control  of 
the  elements  and  materials  which  are  found  in  nature.  The  conversion 
of  some  of  these  elements  into  special  forms  for  use;  the  employment 
of  others,  such  as  fuel,  air,  and  water,  in  the  development  of  power  ; 
the  reactions  which  some  of  these  elements  undergo  when  brought  into 
contact  with  each  other;  the  deterioration  of  others  from  use;  and 
their  physical  properties  as  to  strength,  or  durability ;  all  these  con- 
siderations make  it  essential  that  the  Mechanical  Engineer  should  pos- 
sess a  thorough  knowledge  of  Chemistry,  of  Physics,  and  of  Metal- 
lurgy. Indeed  there  is  scarcely  an  instance  where  large  operations  are 
performed  by  machinery,  where  the  combined  use  and  applications  of 
all  these  sciences  with  those  of  mechanics  are  not  in  some  way  exhibited. 

As  regards  the  course  of  study,  it  is  thus  evident  that  there  is  hardly 
a  profession  which  requires  more  thorough  and  varied  preparation  than 
that  which  has  for  its  object  the  application  and  uses  of  machinery. 

4.  Fields  of  Usefulness, 

The  fields  of  useful  employment  open  to  young  men  who  may  have 
reached  the  high  degree  of  proficiency  attainable,  under  the  course  of 
instruction  thus  described,  are  varied  and  extensive.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  speak  of  machinery  as  labor-saving;  it  is  labor-multiplying  in  its 
effects,  and  demands  of  the  laborer  merely  increased  intelligence,  the 
use  of  the  intellect  rather  than  the  wear  and  tear  of  muscles ;  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  a  man's  labor  no  longer  depend  solely  on  physical  strength, 
but  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  tool  or  machine  placed  in  his  hands,  and 
his  skill  in  using  it. 

The  steam  and  water  power  of  this  country  now  in  use  are  probably 
equivalent  to  the  power  of  one  hundred  millions  of  men.  The  applica- 
tions of  such  enormous  aggregates  of  energy  require  corresponding 
amounts  of  invested  capital,  and  the  employment  of  large  numbers  of 
men  of  more  than  ordinary  skill  and  intelligence  in  the  designing, 
manufacturing,  and  controlling  of  the  machinery  so  extensively  used. 
And  one  of  the  pressing  wants  of  our  country  at  this  time  is  the  need 
of  more  young  men  of  a  higher  standard  of  qualifications  for  these 
pursuits. 

For  particular  fields  of  usefulness  we  may  point  to  the  construction 
and  management  of  steamships,  both  for  government  uses  and  for  the 
merchant  marine.  The  entire  revolution  in  ship-building  by  which  iron 
has  supplanted  wood,  throws  all  the  opportunities  and  advantages  of 
this  extensively  practised  art  or  industry  within  the  sphere  of  the  Me- 
chanical Engineer. 

The  modern  steamship  embodies  more  than  any  other  structure  of  the 


15        ;'  '  /,  ;    :  :;W;>  ' :  A 

present  day  all  the  principles  and  practices  of  mechanical  and  dynami- 
cal science,  and  there  is  no  class  of  structures  in  which  science  as  well 
as  practical  skill  is  more  positively  demanded.  Many  millions,  perhaps 
hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars,  must  be  expended  in  future  years  to 
meet,  in  this  country,  the  growing  wants  of  our  naval  and  merchant 
services. 

Another  important  sphere  of  usefulness  may  be  found  in  the  applica- 
tion of  steam  power  to  works  of  internal  industry,  to  railroads,  manu- 
facturing establishments,  mines,  &c.  Works  for  construction  of  engines 
and  machinery  are  scattered  all  over  the  land,  embracing  every  conceiv- 
able variety. 

Other  establishments  adopt  for  special  trades  or  business  operations 
the  construction  of  iron  bridges,  and  the  application  of  iron  to  build- 
ings, two  fields  of  employment  for  labor  and  capital  which  are  rapidl}- 
increasing  and  extending;  and  in  which  the  Mechanical  Engineer  shares 
with  the  Civil  Engineer  and  Architect  the  labor  and  credit  of  planning 
and  erecting  the  beautiful  structures  of  iron  which  are  beginning  every- 
where to  spring  into  existence. 

The  improvement  of  water  power  by  the  use  of  turbine-wheels,  and 
the  manufacture  of  these  important  prime  movers  have  already  become 
a  very  large  and  valuable  branch  of  manufacturing  iiidustiy,  requiring 
many  millions  of  capital.  More  than  one  manufacturer  in  this  branch 
of  business  has  expressed  to  me  his  full  and  hearty  interest  in  the 
movement  which  is  here  being  made,  for  the  better  scientific  education 
of  young  men  who  may  become  available  for  this  work. 

Where  so  much  machinery  is  constructed  and  used,  there  is  of  course 
a  large  demand  for  raw  materials,  especially  iron  and  steel.  The  works 
which  supply  these  materials,  the  furnaces,  forges,  and  rolling  mills, 
occupy  also  a  large  place  in  business  enterprises.  To  these  we  may  add 
the  mills  and  manufacturing  establishments,  which  are  scattered  thickly 
through  the  land,  requiring  superintendents,  managers,  consulting 
engineers,  and  experts,  and  we  shall  still  have  an  incomplete  review 
of  the  many  channels  in  which  graduates  in  this  course  may  find 
occupation. 

This  statement  requires,  however,  a  condition  on  their  part ;  a  con- 
dition that  there  shall  be  in  their  acquirements  nothing  superficial  nor 
unreal;  but  those  solid  attainments  which  come  from  faithful  and  per- 
severing application.  With  these,  the  number  of  graduates  that  may 
leave  this  institution  cannot  be  too  great.  They  will  be  quickly  absorbed 
in  the  great  industries  of  the  country. 

5.  Benefits  to  the  Public. 

The  welfare  and  the  success  of  the  young  men  who  shall  receive  the 
advantages  of  this  superior  scientific  training  are  not,  however,  the 
only,  nor  indeed  the  most  important  matters  for  consideration. 

What  return  or  compensation  shall  there  be  to  the  public  and  to 
business  communities  for  their  sympathy,  co-operation,  and  aid  in  estab- 
lishing these  special  courses  of  instruction;  and  what  may  they  expect 
and  receive  for  the  price  paid  for  these  higher  scientific  acquirements  ? 

There  is  another  side  to  the  account  on  which  the  balance  of  advan- 
tages should  largely  rest. 

Leaving  out  of  view  the  pecuniary  gains  to  individuals  and  associated 
companies  engaged  in  commerce,  the  arts,  and  manufactures,  which 


16 

must  result  from  the  employment  of  men  of  higher  qualifications,  there 
are  other  considerations  of  still  higher  value. 

While  the  use  of  machinery  in  multiplying  human  labor,  and  in  pro- 
ducing great  and  special  results  which  without  it  would  be  impossible, 
has  produced  means  of  comfort  and  happiness  which  belong  to  what 
we  call  a  higher  civilization,  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  in  order  that 
the  masses — the  poorer  and  middle  classes,  as  well  as  the  rich — may 
partake  of  these  new  blessings,  the  price  to  be  paid  for  them  must  not 
be  beyond  reach. 

The  condition  that  the  greatest  possible  number  shall  be  able  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  opportunities  of  quick  transportation  by  sea  and 
land,  and  that  the  necessities  of  comfortable  living  shall  be  transported 
and  distributed  widely,  and  with  rapidity,  carries  with  it  the  require- 
ment for  economy  in  the  construction  of  steamships  and  railroads,  and 
in  the  use  of  steam  as  a  motive  power. 

The  condition  that  every  human  being  may  learn  to  read  and  derive 
pleasure  and  profit  from  books,  carries  with  it  the  necessity  for  economy 
in  all  that  relates  to  the  art  of  printing. 

The  condition  that  iron  and  steel  may  be  employed  so  largely  for 
public  and  private  use,  requires  that  they  shall  be  produced  with  the 
least  possible  expenditure. 

The  condition  that  every  man  may  place  his  family  in  a  comfortable 
dwelling,  and  give  them  warm  and  suitable  clothing,  the  luxuries — if 
we  choose  to  call  them  so — of  carpets,  ornaments  for  his  dwelling, 
agreeable  furniture,  abundance  of  light  and  heat;  and  above  all,  the 
condition  of  things  which  enables  all,  after  having  provided  these  com- 
forts for  themselves  and  families,  to  contribute  of  their  savings  to  the 
wants  of  the  unfortunate ;  to  sustain  charitable  and  benevolent  en- 
terprises, to  build  hospitals  and  asylums,  to  send  the  Gospel  to  the 
heathen — requires  that  the  arts,  industries,  and  manufactures  that  pro- 
duce these  results  shall  be  conducted  with  careful  saving  and  the  least 
possible  waste. 

To  aid  in  the  accomplishment  of  these  great  ends  is  one  of  the  objects 
of  applied  science.  From  the  days  of  Watt  to  the  present  time,  the 
main  object  of  the  application  of  science  to  the  construction  and  use  of 
the  steam-engine  has  been  the  economy  of  fuel ;  and  the  triumph  of 
Bessemer  consists  in  his  having  shown  how  to  economize  the  production 
of  steel  on  a  large  scale. 

And  generally  the  aims  of  applied  science  are  mainly  to  show  how 
to  avoid  ivaste,  to  discover  and  point  out  the  means  by  which  useful  re- 
sults may  be  accomplished  with  the  least  expenditures — to  teach  economy 
of  time,  economy  of  labor,  economy  of  materials,  economy  of  power,  and 
saving  of  health  and  strength. 

In  this  field,  Mechanical  or  Dynamical  Engineering  has  its  impor- 
tant part  to  perform  in  the  advance  of  Christian  civilization. 


COLLINS,     PRINTER. 


BOOKS   FOR  PRACTICAL    MEN. 


Armengaud,  Amoroux,  and  Johnson. — The 
Practical  Draughtsman's  Book  of  Indus- 
trial Design,  and  Machinist's  and  Engi- 
neer's Drawing  Companion.  Illustrated 
by  fifty  folio  steel  plates,  and  fifty  wood  - 
cu^s.  New  edition.  4to.  .  $1000 

Bauerman.— Metallurgy  oflron.  Illustrated. 
12mo $2  50 

Booth  and  Morfit.— The  Encyclopedia  of 
Chemistry,  Practical  and  Theoretical. 
By  James  C.  Booth  and  Campbell  Morfit. 
Illustrated  8Vo.  .  .  .  $5  00 

Box.— Practical  Hydraulics.  By  Thomas 
Box.  12mo $2  00 

Box.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  Heat.  By 
Thomas  Box.  Illustrated  by  14  plates. 
12mo. $4  25 

Buckmaster,— The  Elements  of  Mechanical 
Physics.  By  J.  C.  Buckmaster.  Illus- 
trated 12mo.  •  .  .  •  f  1  50 

Bullock.— The  American  Cottage  Builder. 
By  J.  Bullock.  75  engravings.  8vo.  $3  50 

Bullock. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture 
and  Building.  By  John  Bullock.  250 
engravings.  8vo.  .  .  .  $3  50 

Burgh.— Practical  Illustrations  of  Land  and 
Marine  Engines.  By  N.  P.  Burgh.  Il- 
lustrated by  20  plates,  double  elephant 
folio $21  00 

Burgh. — Practical  Rules  for  the  Propor- 
tions of  Modern  Engines  and  Boilers  for 
Land  and  Marine  Purposes.  By  N.  P. 
Burgh.  12mo $2  00 

Burgh.— The  Side-Valve  Practically  Con- 
sidered. By  N.  P.  Burgh.  Illustrated. 
12mo .  .  $2  00 

Byrne.— The  Essential  Elements  of  Practi- 
cal Mechanics.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  Il- 
lustrated. 12mo.  .  .  .  $3  63 

Byrne. — The  Practical  Model  Calculator. 
By  Oliver  Byrne.  8vo.  .  .  $4  50 

Byrne.— The  Practical  Metal-Worker's  As- 
sistant. 592  engravings.  8vo.  $7  00 

Campin. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechani- 
cal Engineering.  By  Francis  Cainpin.  29 
plates,  100  wood  engravings.  8vo.  $6  00 

Camus.— A  Treatise  on  the  Teeth  of  Wheels. 
By  M.  Cninus.  40  plates.  8vo.  i>3  00 

Colburn. — The  Locomotive  Engine.  By 
Zerah  Colburn.  12mo.  .  .  $t  25 

Craik. — The  Practical  American  Millwright 
and  Miller.  By  David  Craik,  Millwright. 


Numerous  wood  engravings,  and  folding 
plates.  8vo.  .  .  .  '  .  $5  00 

Dussauce. — A  New  and  Complete  Treatise 
on  the  Arts  of  Tanning,  Currying,  and 
Leather  Dressing.  By  Prof.  II.  Dussauce. 
212  Wood  engravings.  8vo.  .  $1000 

Fairbairn. — The  Principles  of  Mechanism 
and  Machinery  of  Transmission.  By  Sir 
William  Fairbairn,  Bart.  150  wood-cuts. 
12mo $2  50 

Gesner. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Coal,  Pe- 
troleum, and  other  Distilled  Oils.  By 
George  W.  Gesner.  8vo.  .  .  $3  50 

Landrin. — A  Treatise  on  Steel.  By  A.  A. 
Fesquet.  12tno.  .  .  .  $3  00 

Larkin. — The  Practical  Brass  and  Iron 
Founder's  Guide.  By  Jas.  Larkin.  12mo. 

$2  25 

Leroux. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu- 
facture of  Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns. 
By  A.  A.  Fesquet.  12  plates.  8vo.  $5  00 

Molesworth. — Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Form- 
ulas and  Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mecha- 
nical Engineers.  By  Guilford  L.  Moles- 
worth.  $2  00 

Oshorn.— The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel. 
By  Prof.  H.  S.  Osborn.  230  wood  en- 
gravings, 6  large  plates.  8vo  $10  00 

Held. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu- 
facture of  Portland  Cement.  By  Henry 
Reid.  Illustrated.  8vo.  .  .  $7  00 

Schinz. — Researches  on  the  Action  of  the 
Blast-Furnace.  By  Charles  Schinz.  7 
plates.  12mo $4  25 

Shaw. — Civil  Architecture.  By  Edward 
Shaw.  102  plates.  4to.  .  .  $10  00 

Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Round, 
Square,  and  Flat  Bar  Iron,  Steel,  &c.,  by 
Measurement 63 

Taylor.— Statistics  of  Coal.  By  R.  C.  Tay- 
lor. 5  maps.  8vo.  .  .  $6  00 

Templeton. — The  Practical  Examinator  on 
Steam  and  the  Steam-Engine.  By  Wil- 
liam Templeton.  12rao.  .  .  *$1  25 

Will.— Tables  for  Qualitative  Chemical 
Analysis.  Translated  by  Prof.  Charles 
F.  Hiines.  12mo.  .  .  .  $1  25 

Williams.— On  Heat  and  Steam.  By  Chas. 
Wye  Williams.  Illustrated.  8vo.  $3  50 

Worssam. — On  Mechanical  Saws.  By  S. 
W.  Worssam,  Jr.  18  large  plates.  8vo. 

$5  00 


The  above,  or  any  of  my  Books  sent  by  mail,  free  of  postage,  at  the  publica- 
tion prices. 

My  new  and  enlarged  descriptive  Catalogue  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Books, 
62  pp.  8vo.,  Nov.  1,  1870,  will  be  sent  by  mail,  free  ot  postage,  to  any  one  who 
will  furnish  me  with  his  address. 

HENRY  CAREY  BATRD,   Industrial  Publisher, 
No.  406  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 


THE   WORKS   OF   HENRY  C.  CAREY,  LL.D. 

A  true  science  cf  civilization,  by  which  and  through  which,  man  may  become  free!! 


A  MANUAL  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE: 

BEING  A  CONDENSATION  OF  THE 

"PRINCIPLES  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE"  OF  H,  C,  CAREY.  LL.D 

BY    KATE    McKEAN. 

A  New  Edition,    In  one  volume,  12mo,    Price  $2.25.    By  mail  free  of  postage  to  any  address, 
<es-  The  Text-book  of  numerous  Universities  and  Colleges. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    SOCIAL.  SCIENCE. 

TJtree  volumes  8vo.,  cloth.    $1O.OO. 


CONTENTS. — Volume  I.  Of  Science  anu 
Its  Methods— Of  Man,  the  Subject  of  Social 
t-'cience — Of  increase  in  the  Numbers  of 
Mankind—  Of  the  Occupation  of  the  Earth 
—Of  Value— Of  Wealth— Of  the  Formation 
of  Society— Of  Appropriation— Of  Changes 
of  Matter  in  Place — Of  Mechanical  and 
Chemical  Changes  in  the  Forms  of  Matter. 
Volume  II.  Of  Vital  Changes  in  the  Form 


of  Matter— Of  the  Instrument  of  Associa- 
tion— (Money).  Volume  III.  Of  Production 
and  Consumption— Of  Accumulation— Of 
Circulation— Of  Distribution— Of  Concen- 
tration and  Centralization — Of  Competition 
—Of  Population— Of  Food  and  Population 
—  Of  Colonization  — Of  the  Malthusian 
Theory— Of  Commerce— Of  the  Societary 
Organization— Of  Social  Science. 


HARMONY  OF  INTERESTS;  Agricultural,  Manufacturing,  and  Commercial. 

8vo.,  cloth,    ...........  $1  50 

MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS:  comprising  "Harmony  of  Interests,"  "Money," 
"  Letters  to  the  President,"  "Financial  Crises,"  ki  The  Way  to  Outdo  England 
without  Fighting  Her,"  "  Resources  of  the  Union,"  "The  Public  Debt,"  "Con- 
traction or  Expansion?"  "Reriew  of  the  Decade,  1857-'G7,"  "Reconstruction," 
etc.,  etc.  1  vol.  8voM  cloth,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  4  50 

THE  PAST,  THE  PRESENT,  AND  THE  FUTURE.    8vo 2  50 

THE  SLAVE  TRADE,  DOMESTIC  AND  FOREIGN:  Why  it  Exists,  and  How 

it  may  be  extinguished  (1853).    12m o.,  cloth,  .  .  .  .  1  50 

CONTENTS.— The  Wide  Extent  of  Slavery 

—Of  Slavery  in  the  British  Colonies— Of 
in  the  United  States— Of  Emanci- 


Slavery  i 

pation  in  the  British  Colonies— How  Man 

\'isses  from  Poverty  and  Slavery  towards 
Vealth  and  Freedom — How  Wealth  tends 
to  Increase — How  Labor  acquires  Value 
and  Man  becomes  Free — How  Man  passes 
from  Wealth  and  Freedom  toward  Poverty 
and  Slavery — How  Slavery  grew  and  How 
it  is  now  maintained  in  the  West  Indies — 
How  Slavery  grew,  and  is  maintained  in 

4»-The  above,  or  any  of  my  Books,  sent  by  mail,  free  of  postage,  at  the  publication  prices. 
My  new  and  enlarged  CATALOGUE  OF  PIIACTICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS.  82  pagea, 
8vo.,  now  ready,  will  be  sent,  free  of  postage,  to  any  one  who  will  favor  me  with  his  address. 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD,  Industrial  Publisher, 

406  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 


the  United  States— How  Slavery  grows  in 
Portugal  and  Turkey — How  Slavery  grows 
In  India — How  Slavery  grows  in  Ireland 
and  Scotland— How  Slavery  grows  in  Eng- 
land— How  can  Slavery  be  Extinguished?— 
How  Freedom  grows  in  Northern  Germany 
—How  Freedom  grows  in  Russia— How 
Freedom  grows  in  Denmark — How  Freedom 
grows  in  Spain  and  Belgium — Of  the  Duty 
of  the  People  of  the  United  States— Of  the 
Duty  of  the  People  of  England. 


Gaylord  Bros. 

Makers 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
'PAT.  JAM.  21 , 1908 


YC 


339688 


s-7 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


